Acknowledgements, References and Appendices
Acknowledgements
The NRE staff who conducted the old-growth forest study were Stephen Farrell, Adrian Moorrees, Peter Black, Adam Gilbee, Milos Pelikan, Anita Brady, Mike Irvine and Peter Baker.
The draft report was compiled by Roger Smith, a former forest manager of CNR.
Stephen Farrell, Peter Woodgate, Richard Gijsbers Gerard O'Neill and Malcolm McKinty provided comments on the final draft of this report.
References
AHC/CNR (1994). Australian Heritage Commission and Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Regional Assessment of National Estate Values in the Central Highlands, Victoria. Draft Project Report. AHC & CNR.
Banks, J.C.G. (1993) Tree-Ring analysis of two Mountain Ash trees Eucalyptus regnans
(F.Muell.) from the Watts and O'Shannassy Catchments, Central Highlands, Victoria (unpubl)
Clark, I.D. (1990) Aboriginal Languages and Clans; an Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800-1900. Monash Publications in Geography, No. 37, Monash University.
Commonwealth of Australia (1992) National Forest Policy Statement: a new focus for
Australia's forests, AGPS, Canberra.
Dyne, G.R (ed.) (1991) Attributes of old-growth forest in Australia; Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the National Forest Inventory, 6-7 May 1991. Bureau of Rural Resources, Department of Primary Industries and Energy.
Farrell, S et al. (unpubl.) Project report of the Old-growth Forests Study of the Central Highlands of Victoria. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
Gill, A.M. (1981) Adaptive responses of Australian vascular plant species to fires . In: Fire and the Australian Biota. Gill, A. M.et. al. (Eds.) Australian Academy of Science, Canberra: 243 - 72.
Griffiths, T. (1992) Secrets of the forests: Discovering History in Melbourne's Ash Range. Allen and Unwin, Sydney.
Jacobs, M.R. (1955) Growth Habits of the Eucalypts. Forestry and Timber Bureau.
LCC (1991) Melbourne Area District 2 Review: Descriptive Report. Land Conservation Council, Melbourne.
LCC (1994) Melbourne Area District 2 Review: Final Recommendations. Land Conservation Council, Melbourne.
Resource Assessment Commission (1992). Forest and Timber Inquiry Final Report. Volumes 1, 2A and 2B, Canberra.
Woodgate, P.W., Peel, W.D., Ritman, K.T., Coram, J.E., Brady, A., Rule, A.J. and Banks,J.C.G. (1994) A study of the Old-growth Forests of East Gippsland. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria.
Appendix 1 - Forest Vegetation of the Central Highlands
Introduction
The current distribution and condition of the native vegetation in the study area reflects the effects of European settlement. Most clearing of the natural vegetation on the plains and foothills has been principally for agriculture, but also for urban, industrial and mining purposes, and for roading, recreation and other uses. While the landscape of private land is predominantly agricultural, public land has generally retained a native vegetation cover, but much of it has been subject to the range of land uses and other factors described in Chapter 5 which have influenced its extent, composition and condition. Native vegetation on public land is an essential natural resource providing environmental, economic, social, scientific and aesthetic values to the community.
Classification of vegetation
The following description of the forested vegetation on public land in the study area classifies native vegetation into ecological vegetation classes. The concept of ecological vegetation class has been developed to provide a standard State-wide classification. The term ecological vegetation class (hereafter abbreviated to vegetation class), generally replaces the term vegetation community used in the LCC Melbourne Area District 2 Descriptive Report (1991).
Each description is necessarily brief and focuses on the overstorey species. A more comprehensive analysis, including characteristic species, is provided in the LCC reports of the Melbourne Area District 2, specifically the Descriptive Report (1991) and the Final Recommendations (1994); and also the draft project report of National Estate Values (AHC/ CNR 1994). It should be noted that, subsequent to the publication of that report, the area statements have been updated.
Subalpine vegetation classes
Subalpine Woodland: This community forms a woodland or forest which occurs on slopes above 1200m, on relatively free-draining soils. Usually dominated by Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora), the understorey may variously consist of a rich suite of grasses and herbs, or a dense layer of woody shrubs such as Mueller's Bush-pea (Pultenaea muelleri), Alpine Pepper (Tasmannia xerophila) and Lilac Berry (Trochocarpa clarkei). An interesting variant of this community is found on Mt Useful, where the Ash-mallee (E. kybeanensis) occurs with Alpine Wattle (Acacia alpina), Drooping Beard-heath (Leucopogon gelidus) and a rare, as yet un-named species of Broom-heath (Monotoca sp. aff. elliptica [alps]). Another unusual record is of Spinning Gum (E. perriniana), which occurs north of Mt Whitelaw.
Montane or mountain vegetation classes
Montane Dry Woodland: This occurs on the drier, more exposed aspects of the mountain slopes as a woodland or forest from 15m to 25m in height. Characteristic trees include Broad-leaved Peppermint (E. dives), Candlebark (E. rubida) and Narrow-leaf Peppermint (E. radiata). Snow Gum is often present at higher altitudes. Other notable eucalypts found in this community include Brittle Gum (E. mannifera), which is at the western limit of its distribution, and the uncommon Bogong Gum (E. chapmaniana), both of which are found in the Woods Point-Upper Goulburn area.
Montane Damp Forest: At higher altitudes, this is often dominated by pure stands of Alpine Ash (E. delegatensis). The more protected mountain slopes support a tall forest (up to 40m in height) dominated in its lower altitudinal range by Mountain Grey Gum (E. cypellocarpa), Messmate (E. obliqua), Narrow-leaf Peppermint and occasionally Manna Gum (E. viminalis). Montane Damp Forest is closely related to Damp Sclerophyll Forest, with which it intergrades at between 800m and 1000m in elevation.
Montane Wet Forest: This occupies the most protected, usually south-facing slopes and gullies. Here soils are deep, fertile and well-drained. The canopy may grow to more than 60m, and consists of pure or mixed stands of Alpine Ash and Shining Gum (E. nitens). The majority (approximately 90%) of these stands are regrowth forest, mostly originating from the 1939 bushfires. Manna Gum may be a co-dominant in the Blue and Royston Ranges, while significant occurrences of Tingaringy Gum (E. glaucescens) and Errinundra Shining Gum (E. denticulata) are recorded from Montane Wet Forest on the Baw Baw Plateau.
Montane riparian thicket
Not included in analysis of old growth.
Dense thickets of Mountain Tea-tree (Leptospermum grandifolium) occur along drainage lines in montane and subalpine areas. Montane Riparian Thicket is associated with a number of other vegetation classes, often arising at the outlets of sub-alpine heathlands, and descending to intergrade with Cool Temperate Rainforest or Riparian Thicket at lower altitudes. The canopy of Montane Riparian Thicket may vary in height up to about 15m. Cool Temperate Rainforest dominants - Myrtle Beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) and Southern Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) - are frequently subdominant in this community.
Moist forest vegetation classes
Cool Temperate Rainforest : Not included in analysis of old growth.
Moisture and the virtual absence of fire are the key determinants of the distribution of Cool Temperate Rainforest which occurs in protected gully heads, on surrounding slopes and along streams throughout the wetter, mountainous parts of the study area.
Cool Temperate Rainforest is dominated by Myrtle Beech and Southern Sassafras, which typically form a more-or-less continuous, dense canopy up to 40m high. Scattered emergent eucalypts may be present. Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) may form part of the closed rainforest canopy in some stands, but is also widespread in other ecological vegetation classes.
Wet Forest: Wet Forest is usually dominated by Mountain Ash (E. regnans), forming the tallest forests in the study area. One of the world's tallest trees (average mature height ranges from 55m to 75m, although trees more than 100m tall have been recorded) Mountain Ash is exceeded in height only by the giant redwoods of California.. Occurring on the protected slopes of the ranges, plateaux and outlying hills, these sites tend to have abundant rainfall, deep, rich, well-drained soils, and offer some degree of fire protection. Beneath the canopy, a second storey of trees including Silver Wattle (Acacia dealbata) and Blackwood may reach 35m. The third storey comprises broad-leaved shrubs such as Hazel Pomaderris(Pomaderris aspera), Blanket-leaf (Bedfordia arborescens), Musk Daisy-bush (Olearia argophylla), Austral Mulberry (Hedycarya angustifolia), Tree Lomatia (Lomatia fraseri) and Banyalla (Pittosporum bicolor) which grow to 20m in height. (Not included in the analysis of old growth.)
Approximately 80% of the mountain ash stands are even-aged regrowth forest, mostly originating from the bushfires of 1939. Of particular note are the extensive areas in the Central Highlands where two extreme fires in succession (1926 and 1939) have led to the development of thickets, usually of Silver Wattle or Blackwood without a eucalypt overstorey. The interval between these fires was insufficient to allow eucalypt seed stores to be replenished.
Damp Forest: This widespread ecological vegetation class occupies a range of sites on a variety of soils and aspects. It occurs from 200m to 1000m in elevation. It differs from Wet Forest in that it has a simpler structure without a distinct tree-fern layer, the characteristic shrubs usually have smaller, tougher leaves, and the ground layer is much drier, supporting more herbs and grasses. Messmate and Mountain Grey Gum are the characteristic dominants in the overstorey, although Mountain Ash, Manna Gum, Silver-top (E. sieberi) and Eurabbie (E. globulus ssp bicostata) may be locally dominant.
Riparian Thicket: Not included in analysis of old growth.
Dense thickets of Woolly Tea-tree (Leptospermum lanigerum) and/or Scented Paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa) occur on broad beds of small streams or on the regularly flooded terraces of larger streams and rivers. Soils are usually sandy or gravelly, but with high silt levels. Woolly Tea-tree occurs throughout the study area, while Scented Paperbark is confined to areas south of the Divide.
Riparian Forest: A tall forest of river banks and alluvial terraces, this tends to occur along quite swift-flowing streams. It is normally dominated by Manna Gum with Silver Wattle, Blackwood, Hazel Pomaderris, Victorian Christmas-bush (Prostanthera lasianthos) and Prickly Coprosma (Coprosma quadrifida) in the shrub layer. An abundance of moisture combined with fertile, well drained soils explains the strong floristic links with Wet Forest.
A major variant of Riparian Forest occurs on saturated river flats, sometimes adjacent to a swift-flowing river. These sites are regularly flooded. Soils here are silt-rich river sands and gravels, although sites with heavier clay soils may also support this variant. It is usually dominated by Swamp Gum (E. ovata), although Mealy Stringybark (E. cephalocarpa) and Messmate may also be present, particularly in the La Trobe, Bunyip and Tarago River catchments.
Dry forest vegetation classes
Herb-rich Foothill Forest: Herb-rich Foothill Forest occurs mainly in the northern part of the study area. The canopy is usually 20 to 35 m tall, and is made up of Narrow-leaf Peppermint and Messmate in the Big River, Black Range and Mt Disappointment areas, while Eurabbie, Manna Gum and Candlebark are more common in the Strathbogie Ranges, Tallarook State Forest and around Lake Eildon.
Shrubby Foothill Forest: Similar in structure to Herb-rich Foothill Forest, Shrubby Foothill Forest has a more dense and varied shrub layer, but tends to lack a diverse ground layer. It is widespread on higher slopes, particularly between 400m and 900m in elevation, both north and south of the Great Dividing Range. The dominant trees are Messmate and Narrow-leaf Peppermint, although Silver-top, Mountain Grey Gum and Scent-bark (E. ignorabilis) may occur in this community in the Walhalla area.
Heathy Foothill Forest: This is closely related to the two previous communities, although it tends to occur at lower elevations, on yellowish gradational soils and leached sands of low fertility. Examples are found mainly on the lower slopes in the La Trobe, Bunyip and Tarago River catchments. It differs from the others in having an understorey with strong floristic affinities with heathy woodlands and heathlands. The canopy includes Silver-top, Yertchuk (E. consideniana), and Messmate. White Stringybark (E. globoidea) and Brown Stringybark (E. baxteri) are occasionally present.
Valley Forest: Valley Forest is restricted to the lower slopes and valleys of the foothill country to the north-east of Melbourne, usually on acidic duplex soils and on southerly aspects. It is closely related floristically to Grassy Dry Forest and Herb-rich Foothill Forest. The overstorey is dominated by a mixture of Red Box (E. polyanthemos), Red Stringybark (E. macrorhyncha), Long-leaf Box (E. goniocalyx) and Yellow Box (E. melliodora). In low-lying sites, often adjacent to seasonally inundated areas, Swamp Gum may be present.
Heathy Dry Forest: There are three focuses for Heathy Dry Forest in the study area: the Kinglake area, and the upper valleys of the Goulburn and Thomson Rivers. In most areas, it tends to occur on shallow stony soils of low fertility, with poor water retention capabilities. However, some sites in the Kinglake area appear to occur on the margins of acidic duplex soils, which may explain some floristic differences in these sites.
Generally, Heathy Dry Forest is dominated by a low canopy of Broad-leaved Peppermint. In the Kinglake area, Messmate, Long-leaf Box and Mealy Stringybark may also be present. In the upper Thomson River valley, stunted Mountain Grey Gum, Silver-top and Yertchuk may occur. In the upper Goulburn, Broad-leaved Peppermint often occurs at higher elevations with Candlebark, indicating the close links between this community and Montane Dry Woodland. In fact, these two communities may intergrade for considerable distances on northerly slopes.
Grassy Dry Forest: This community occurs on relatively exposed aspects, often on moderately fertile acidic duplex soils. It is best developed in the hills to the north-east of Melbourne and in the foothills of the Goulburn River valley between Jamieson and Seymour. It is dominated by the same suite of eucalypts (Red Box, Red Stringybark, Long-leaf Box and Yellow Box) as Valley Forest, with which it is often associated.
Plains forest and woodland vegetation classes
Box Woodland: Box Woodland is an open, grassy woodland dominated by Grey Box (E. microcarpa). Within the study area, it is restricted to the lower slopes and upper terraces of the Goulburn River. In the Alexandra area, the best examples can be seen along road reserves. The relatively fertile soils of Box Woodland has led to its clearing for agriculture causing a dramatic reduction in the extent of this vegetation class throughout its range in Victoria. A variant of this community, which includes White Box (E. albens), Red Box and Yellow Box, occurs sporadically along the Goulburn River valley from the Merton area to Trawool. This variant has affinities with Grassy Dry Forest, and is reminiscent of the dry forests of north-eastern Victoria.
Plains Grassy Woodland: The most common component of this community are grassy woodlands dominated by River Red Gum (E. camaldulensis) which occur on seasonally water-logged clays and clay-loams.
Floodplain Riparian Woodland: This community comprises the woodland vegetation which typically occurs along the banks of the larger, slower flowing rivers of the study area, such as the Goulburn, Yea, Acheron and Yarra Rivers. It frequently occurs in conjunction with one or more floodplain wetland communities. River Red Gum forms a tall, woodland canopy over a medium to tall shrub layer that includes Silver Wattle, Tree Violet (Hymenanthera dentata), River Bottlebrush (Callistemon sieberi) and River Tea-tree (Leptospermum obovatum).
Heathy Woodland: This occurs on gentle, north-facing lower slopes in the Gembrook, Tonimbuk, Tanjil and Moondarra areas. Soils are commonly sandy at the surface, with a clay or coffee-rock impeding layer at some depth. They may be seasonally wet, but dry out in summer.
They comprise a low woodland of Narrow-leaf Peppermint, Mealy Stringybark, Messmate, and/or Yertchuk with a shrub layer that includes Hairpin Banksia (Banksia spinulosa), Bushy Hakea (Hakea sericea), Furze Hakea (Hakea ulicina), Dagger Hakea (Hakea teretifolia), Prickly Tea-tree (Leptospermum continentale) and Common Heath (Epacris impressa).